29th March 2006
sociological perspectives(Cavenaco che Chavara)
THE FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE
An accepted premise of the functionalist position is that no human custom, institution, or
set of behavior exists in vaccuo; there must always be an interplay between, the component
elements of a social system (including the environment), and a continuing interdependence
between them is created on many different levels(Spencer, 1965: 13).
Structural – functionalism seeks to describe the social system in terms of structures, mechanisms,
processes, and functions and to explain why a given structure rather than another contributes
to the satisfaction of a given functional requisite at a given time. The functionalist draws
mainly upon the ideas of the pioneer sociologists– Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, and Emile
Durkheim. And one of the features of a system
stressed by functionalists is its tendency toward equilibrium, or balance, among its parts and
among the forces operating on it. Human-Environment Interactions: The Functionalist Perspective
The functionalist perspective though has the following draw backs: has difficulty in dealing
with history and processes of change, has the tendency to exaggerate consensus, integration,
and stability while disregarding conflict, dissent and instability it is still a useful tool for describing
society and identifying its structural part and the functions of these parts. Functionalism
for instance, provides a “big picture” of the whole social life, particularly as it finds expressions
in patterned, recurrent behavior and institutions. The functionalist perspective can be used to
analyse various aspects of the human-environmenal tinteraction. The functionalists approach
the ecological environment by examining theinter-connections between the various parts
composing the ecosystem (Faia, 1989: 658-60).Functionalists see the ecosystem as exhibiting
a tendency toward equilibrium; in which itscomponents maintain a delicate balanced
relationship with one another. Functionalists stress that our survival depends on our ability
to maintain a precarious balance among the living and nonliving component comprising the
biosphere (Hughes, 1989: 425).The reciprocal ties that bind human beings
and their physical environment in the Sub-Saharare gion of Africa present a good example of the
human-environment interaction. This region I sfacing the danger of the growing desert causing
starvation among its people and an increase inthe death of cattles.Much of the “desertification “ is not attributableto basic climatic change, but to the overworkingof marginal lands for crops, grassing,
and firewood. The introduction of western techniques,such, as irrigation, deep plowing, and
the use of chemical fertilizers, has compoundedthe sub-African region’s problems (Tucker et
al., 1991: 299-301). The irrigated land becamewaterlogged, accumulated too much salt, and
became useless. The wells dug in the arid regionled people and cattle to congregate in the vicinity
of the wells, with the herds overgrazing thepastures and trampling the ground with their
hoofs.The most obvious impact of desertificationin addition to widespread poverty is the degradation
of a large expanse of land. This generallyleads to potential for human and animal carrying
capacity, and decline in soil fertility. Deserts areknown to be environmental extreme on their own;
human-induced desertification has the potentialto counteract any ameliorating effect of climatic
change on most deserts unless appropriatemanagement actions are taken.
The Niger–Delta (oil-producing) Region ofNigeria, presents another good example of the
human-environment interaction. The activitiesof the oil companies- Shell, Chevron-Texaco,
British Petrol among others in this region havecaused lots of damages especially pollution.
Pollution causes environmental damage andhuman health problems. On the economic side,
pollution control and clean up in this area costsmoney. And anything involving money is always
affected by politics. The interwoven roles playedby politics, the economy, human health, and the
environment will be fully analysed under theconflict and interactionist perspectives.
Expanding human activities on land and seaslead to a vicious cycle because humans intensify
HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS: THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 101
their exploitation of the land in order tocompensate for desertification and pollution.
This can cause a lot of damage, thereby resultingin what Merton calls ‘dysfunction’ on the land.
To avoid this damage to the ecosystem, functionalistsemphasise that human beings must
become more sensitive to both the manifest(those consequences that are intended and
recognized by the participant in a system), andlatent (those consequences that are neither
intended nor recognized by the participants in asystem) consequences of their actions on the
environment. Such precaution will lead to a stateof balance or equilibrium.
conflictict
Like functionalists, conflict theorists, focus their attention on society as a whole, studying
Their institutions and structural arrangements. Table 1 presents the major dissimilarities between
Functionalist and conflict perspectives. The main source of conflict in human societies
Is scarcity of the resources people require, according to conflict perspective? Wealth, prestige,
And power is always in limited supply, so that gains for one individual or group are often
Associated with losses for others (Hughes, 1999:60). Power, the ability to control the behavior
Of others, even against their will-determines who will gain and who will lose (Laswell, 1936). Conflict theorists are concerned with how it is that some groups acquire power, dominate other groups, and affect their will in human efforts. The Human-Environment Interactions:
The Conflict Perspective Generally speaking, conflict perspective does
Not offer a unified point of view on many issues. Issues relating to environmental matters are no
Exceptions. Some conflict theorists have linked environmental problems to the distribution of
The world’s resources than to a limited amount of resources available. That is, the main issue is
Not one of how much is available but one of which individuals and groups will secure a
Disproportionate share of what is available. Consequently, the critical decisions that affect
The environment are made not in the interests of present and future generations but in the
Interests of those groups that can impose their will on others (Hughes, 1999).
From a conflict perspective people are usually separated into two camps on environmental
Matters. Those who favour economic development and growth even if it results in some
Measure of environmental damage and those who see environmental protection over economic
Goals. Although conflict theorists also see many of the same circumstances earlier discussed in
Africa in general and Nigeria in particular, they however, come to somewhat different conclusions. For instance, desertification is not blamed for Africa’s problems, but rather the growing indebtedness pressure exerted on African governments to promote cash crops for export rather
Than for food crops for their people. This phenomenon’s concisely described in the World Bank
Report in the 1980s. The Report explained the situation in five ways: one, from 1980 to 1987,
African farmers increased their food output by only 1.3 percent, less than half the rise in
Population; two, commodity prices fell simultaneously on the world market, and this
Made it impossible for African nations to repay their debts; three, much of the money provided
By Western aid agencies was diverted to highly visible projects such as roads, port facilities,
Airports, and office buildings, thereby recycling the aid money to Western corporations, to the
Neglect of the African farmers; four, even when Western nations provided funds for African governments, they have found an outlet for surplus food in need of market which has
Benefited the United States of America and European farmers; finally, assistance is often
Rendered to African governments that are friendly toward the donor nations, thus guaranteeing the stability of such ‘cooperative’ African nations (Farnsworth, 1990).
The Niger-Delta Region of Nigeria also fits into the human-environment interactions. The coastal area of Niger-Delta Region contains diverse and productive habitats in addition to
Minerals that is important for settlements, development and local subsistence. Coastal
Resources in particular are vital for many local communities and indigenous people. But what exists in the Niger-Delta Region points to the contrary. In addition to the pollution resulting
From gas flaring, degradation of the marine
Environment has also resulted from a wide range
102 O.A. OGUNBAMERUof activities on land. Human settlements, land
Use, construction of coastal infrastructure, agriculture, is affecting the marine environment.
Shipping also causes marine pollution and sea based activities. In Nigeria, for instance, marine
Pollution is basically caused by oil producing activities. The marine environment including the oceans
And all the seas and adjacent coastal areas Forman integrated whole that is an essential component
Of the global life-support and a positive asset that presents opportunities for sustainable
Development (Sumit, 1992: 139). Also in Nigeria, in addition to desertification and the hazards of oil producing activities, soil erosion, deforestation and overgrazing are adversely affecting
Productivity in the farming; forestry and livestock sectors, thereby slowing overall economic
Growth in a country that is an agriculturally based economy.There is also currently the conflict between the federal government of Nigeria and the oil producing states on one hand and the non oil
Producing states and the federal government on the other hand over the issue of ‘resource
Control’, especially as this relates to on-shore, and off-shore resources.
There was also the conflict between the federal government of Nigeria and the youths of
Bayelsa state – one of the leading oil producing states in Nigeria. Specifically, in 1999, immediately
The civilian government came to power, some youths of Odi town in Bayelsa, in agitation
For improvement of their lives, abducted and later killed some law enforcement agents. In retaliation,
The federal government sent a detachment of the army to arrest the situation, but what
Invariably happened was the destruction of Odi town by the army. So many lives were lost, and
Property and houses extensively destroyed. According to conflict theorists, expanding
Human requirements and economic activities replacing ever increasing pressures on land
Resources, creating competition and conflicts and resulting in sub-optional use of both land and
Land resources, and at times loss of lives and property as reported above. If human requirements
Are to be met in a sustainable manner, it inessential to resolve these conflicts and move
Towards more effective and efficient use of land and its natural resources. Integrated physical
And land-use planning and management is an eminently practical way to achieve this.
Table 1: Dissimilarities between functionalism and conflict perspectives
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